Afghanistan Facts

Afghanistan, Southwestern Asian State; 650,000 km², 37.2 million residents (2019).However, the population data is very uncertain. In a census in 1979, the resident population was estimated at about 13 million, to which should be added about 2.5 million nomads. The capital is Kabul (4 million residents, 2018).

Country facts

• Jumhūrī-ye Afghānistān (dari)
  Da Afghānestān Jamhuriyat (pashto) / Islamic Republic of Afghanistan
• Country abbreviation: AF
• Area: 650 000 km²
• Population (2019): 37.2 million residents
• Capital: Kabul
• Main languages: pashto, dari (Persian)
• State: Republic
• Head of State and Head of Government: Ashraf Ghani
• Per capita GDP (2018): US $ 521
• GNI per capita (2018): US $ 550
• Currency unit: 1 Afghan = 100 pulse
• Currency code: AFA
• Country number (telephony): 93
• Internet domain name: af
• Time difference compared to Sweden: +3.5
• National Day: August 19 (Independence Day, 1919)

Nature

• Land use: forest (3%), agricultural land (12%), other (85%)
• Highest mountain: Nowshak (7,690 m above sea level)

Population

• Population density (2019): 57 residents per km²
• Natural population growth (2019): 2.6%; birth number 33 ‰, death number 7 ‰
• Age structure (2019): 0-14 years (44%), 15-64 (53%), 65- (3%)
• Life expectancy (2019): men 63 years, women 66 years
• Infant mortality (2019): 53 per 1,000 live births
• Population forecast 2050: 71 million residents
• HDI (2017): 0.498 (place 168 of 189)
• Urbanization rate (2019): 25%
• Most populous city (2018): Kabul (4 million residents)

Business

• Industry’s contribution to GDP (2016): agriculture (23%), industry (21%), service (56%)
• Exports (2017): US $ 784 million
• Main export products: opium, fruit, carpets
• Main exporting countries: India, Pakistan
• Imports (2017): US $ 7,616 million
• Main import products: machinery, food
• Main importing countries: China, Iran, Pakistan
• Railway network: nothing in operation

Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, is a nation steeped in history, culture, and strategic significance. Nestled in South-Central Asia, it serves as a bridge between Central and South Asia, playing a pivotal role in regional geopolitics. This comprehensive overview delves into Afghanistan’s geography, climate, demographics, economy, government, culture, and history, offering a nuanced understanding of this complex country.

Geography

Location and Borders

Afghanistan is a landlocked country situated at the heart of Asia, sharing its borders with six nations: Pakistan to the south and east, Iran to the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan to the north, and China to the far northeast. Spanning approximately 652,230 square kilometers, Afghanistan is slightly larger than France, making it the 41st largest country in the world. Its strategic position has historically made it a crossroads for various civilizations, trade routes, and, unfortunately, a battleground for geopolitical struggles.

Topography

The topography of Afghanistan is predominantly mountainous, characterized by rugged terrain and high plateaus. The Hindu Kush mountain range, which stretches from central Afghanistan into northern Pakistan, dominates the landscape with peaks like Noshaq, the country’s highest point at 7,492 meters. These mountains not only define the physical geography but also influence the climate and settlement patterns.

In the northeast, the Pamir Mountains extend into Afghanistan, forming part of the larger Himalayan system. These ranges are known for their stunning vistas and harsh climates, making them less accessible and sparsely populated. The Sulaiman Mountains run along the southern border with Pakistan, contributing to the arid and semi-arid regions that dominate much of Afghanistan’s southern landscape.

Beyond the mountains, Afghanistan features vast plains and desert regions. The Registan Desert in the south and the Dasht-e Margo (“Desert of Death”) in the west are notable for their extreme conditions and sparse habitation. These desert areas contrast sharply with the fertile valleys and river basins that support agricultural activities and human settlements.

Major Rivers and Water Bodies

Water is a precious resource in Afghanistan, with several significant rivers coursing through the country. The Amu Darya river forms part of the northern border with Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, playing a crucial role in irrigation and agriculture in the region. The Hari River flows through western Afghanistan, including the important city of Herat, providing essential water for farming and daily life.

The Kabul River, which runs through the capital city of Kabul, is vital for irrigation and as a freshwater source for the densely populated areas it traverses. The Helmand River, the longest river entirely within Afghanistan, is indispensable for the southwestern regions, supporting agriculture and providing water to both urban and rural communities.

Despite these rivers, Afghanistan grapples with significant water scarcity due to its arid climate, overuse of water resources, and inadequate infrastructure for water management. This scarcity poses challenges for agriculture, human consumption, and overall economic development.

Climate

General Climate Patterns

Afghanistan’s climate is as diverse as its topography, primarily exhibiting a continental climate with considerable variations in temperature and precipitation across different regions. The northern and central highlands experience cold winters with heavy snowfall, creating harsh living conditions but also contributing to the region’s water resources through snowmelt. Summers in these areas are generally mild, providing a respite from the severe winter cold.

In contrast, the southern and eastern plains endure hot summers and cold winters, with arid conditions prevailing throughout much of the year. These regions experience significant temperature fluctuations between day and night, a characteristic feature of desert climates. The western regions, including desert areas like the Registan, exhibit semi-arid to arid climates, with minimal rainfall and extreme temperature ranges.

Seasonal Variations

Afghanistan experiences four distinct seasons, each bringing its own set of weather patterns and challenges:

• Winter (December to February): Winters are cold across the country, particularly in mountainous areas where heavy snowfall can block roads and isolate communities. In cities like Kabul, temperatures frequently drop below freezing, and snowfall can disrupt daily life and economic activities.
• Spring (March to May): Spring ushers in gradual warming and the blossoming of vegetation, transforming the landscape into a patchwork of green fields and blooming flowers. However, this season can also bring dust storms, particularly in the plains, which can reduce air quality and visibility.
• Summer (June to August): Summers are characterized by high temperatures and dry conditions, especially in the lowlands and desert regions. Temperatures can soar above 40°C (104°F) in some areas, making life challenging and exacerbating water scarcity issues.
• Autumn (September to November): Autumn sees a cooling of temperatures and a reduction in precipitation, leading to dry and pleasant conditions. This season is often considered the best time for travel and agricultural activities before the onset of the harsh winter.

Climate Challenges

Afghanistan faces several climate-related challenges that impact its agriculture, infrastructure, and overall stability:

• Droughts: Frequent and severe droughts are a recurring issue, severely affecting agricultural productivity and water supply. These droughts can lead to food shortages, economic hardship, and increased migration from rural to urban areas.
• Floods: Heavy rains and snowmelt can cause flooding, particularly in river valleys and low-lying areas. Floods can destroy infrastructure, homes, and crops, exacerbating the vulnerability of already impoverished communities.
• Desertification: Accelerated by deforestation and overgrazing, desertification reduces the amount of arable land, diminishing agricultural output and contributing to environmental degradation. This process threatens the livelihoods of farmers and pastoralists who depend on the land for their sustenance.

People

Demographics

Afghanistan is home to an estimated population of around 40 million people, although accurate figures are difficult to obtain due to ongoing conflicts and displacement. The population is predominantly young, with a significant proportion under the age of 25, reflecting high birth rates and a youthful demographic structure. This youthful population presents both opportunities and challenges, as the country strives to provide education, employment, and social services to its young people amidst instability.

Ethnic Groups

Afghanistan is a mosaic of ethnic diversity, with several major ethnic groups coexisting within its borders. The largest ethnic group is the Pashtuns, who primarily inhabit the southern and eastern regions of the country. Known for their strong tribal structures and cultural traditions, Pashtuns have historically played a significant role in Afghanistan’s politics and society.

Tajiks are the second-largest ethnic group, predominantly residing in the north and west of Afghanistan. They are primarily Persian-speaking and have a rich cultural heritage, contributing significantly to the country’s arts, literature, and intellectual life. Hazaras, another major ethnic group, are mainly found in the central region, particularly in Bamyan Province. They are easily recognizable by their distinct facial features and have a unique cultural identity, though they have faced historical persecution and discrimination.

Uzbeks, primarily located in the northern provinces, add to the ethnic diversity with their own languages and cultural practices. Additionally, smaller ethnic groups such as Turkmen, Baloch, Nuristanis, and others enrich the cultural tapestry of Afghanistan, each contributing unique traditions, languages, and customs.

Languages

Afghanistan is a multilingual country, with Dari and Pashto serving as the two official languages. Dari, a variety of Persian, is widely used in government, education, and media, acting as a lingua franca among the diverse ethnic groups. Pashto, spoken primarily by the Pashtun population, is equally important and is used in regional administration and local media.

Besides these official languages, various minority languages are spoken across the country, including Uzbek, Turkmen, Baluchi, and others. These languages reflect the ethnic diversity of Afghanistan and contribute to its rich linguistic heritage. Efforts to promote linguistic inclusivity have been ongoing, though challenges remain in ensuring equal representation and access to education in all languages.

Religion

Islam is the predominant religion in Afghanistan, with the vast majority of the population adhering to Sunni Islam. A significant minority practices Shia Islam, primarily among the Hazara community, as well as smaller communities of Ismailis and other Islamic sects. Religious beliefs and practices are deeply intertwined with daily life and cultural norms, influencing social behavior, laws, and governance.

Islamic principles shape Afghanistan’s legal system, education, and societal values. Religious leaders and institutions play a crucial role in community life, providing guidance and support to their congregations. However, the interpretation and implementation of Islamic law can vary, leading to differences in religious practices and social norms across different regions and communities.

Social Structure

Afghan society is traditionally tribal and patriarchal, with a strong emphasis on family, community, and honor. Extended families and clans provide a support network, ensuring social cohesion and mutual assistance in times of need. Tribal affiliations often dictate social status, marriage alliances, and political loyalties, influencing both personal and communal relationships.

Gender roles in Afghanistan are distinctly defined, with men typically holding authority in public and family spheres, while women are expected to focus on household responsibilities. Although there have been efforts to improve women’s rights and increase their participation in education and the workforce, cultural and societal barriers continue to restrict their full integration into public life. Initiatives by local and international organizations aim to empower women and promote gender equality, but progress is slow and often met with resistance.

Economy

Overview

Afghanistan’s economy is one of the world’s least developed, grappling with challenges such as prolonged conflict, political instability, inadequate infrastructure, and limited access to education and healthcare. The economy is heavily reliant on agriculture and natural resources, with a significant portion of the population engaged in subsistence farming and pastoralism. Efforts to diversify the economy have been hampered by security issues and a lack of investment.

Agriculture

Agriculture is the cornerstone of Afghanistan’s economy, employing approximately 40% of the workforce. The sector is vital for both domestic consumption and export, with key products including opium poppies, grapes, wheat, barley, and various fruits and nuts. Opium poppy cultivation, while lucrative, poses significant challenges as it fuels the illicit drug trade and contributes to insecurity and corruption.

Despite its importance, the agricultural sector faces numerous obstacles, including water scarcity, outdated farming techniques, and vulnerability to climate change. Efforts to improve agricultural productivity through modernization, irrigation projects, and crop diversification are ongoing but require substantial investment and stability to be effective.

Natural Resources

Afghanistan is endowed with a wealth of natural resources, many of which remain underexploited due to persistent security concerns and a lack of infrastructure. The country boasts significant mineral deposits, including lithium, copper, iron ore, and rare earth elements, which hold substantial economic potential. Additionally, Afghanistan has reserves of natural gas and oil, primarily located in the northern regions, which could provide a foundation for energy development and export.

The extraction and development of these resources offer opportunities for economic growth and job creation. However, realizing this potential requires overcoming significant barriers, including ensuring security, attracting foreign investment, and establishing transparent and effective governance mechanisms to manage resource revenues and prevent corruption.

Industry and Manufacturing

The industrial sector in Afghanistan is relatively small, with most manufacturing activities concentrated in textiles, food processing, and construction materials. Traditional crafts such as carpet and rug weaving hold cultural significance and provide income for many households, but the sector struggles to compete in global markets due to limited access to raw materials, outdated production techniques, and inadequate infrastructure.

Food processing industries, including the processing of fruits and grains, contribute to domestic food security and provide export opportunities. The construction sector, driven by the demand for building materials like cement, plays a crucial role in supporting infrastructure development. However, industrial growth is constrained by unreliable energy supply, insufficient investment, and the ongoing security situation.

Services and Informal Economy

The services sector in Afghanistan is modest but growing, encompassing areas such as retail, trade, telecommunications, and financial services. Informal markets are widespread, providing goods and services to local populations despite the challenges posed by insecurity and limited regulatory oversight.

Telecommunications have seen rapid expansion, with mobile phone usage increasing significantly in recent years. This growth has improved communication and access to information, fostering economic activities and social connections. Remittances from Afghans working abroad constitute a significant portion of household incomes, providing a vital lifeline for many families and contributing to the overall economy.

Challenges and Opportunities

Afghanistan’s economy faces numerous challenges that impede its development:

• Infrastructure Deficits: Poor transportation networks, inadequate energy supply, and limited access to clean water hinder economic activities and limit connectivity within the country and with neighboring regions.
• Security Concerns: Ongoing conflict and instability disrupt economic activities, deter investment, and lead to the destruction of infrastructure and loss of human capital.
• Corruption: High levels of corruption undermine governance, reduce the effectiveness of economic policies, and discourage both domestic and foreign investment.
• Human Capital: Limited access to education and healthcare restricts the development of a skilled workforce, essential for economic diversification and growth.

Despite these challenges, Afghanistan’s abundant natural resources, strategic location, and youthful population offer opportunities for economic transformation. Investments in infrastructure, education, and governance, coupled with efforts to stabilize the security situation, could unlock significant economic potential and improve the livelihoods of millions of Afghans.

Government

Political Structure

Afghanistan’s political landscape has been tumultuous, marked by decades of conflict and shifting governance structures. As of 2024, the country is under the control of the Taliban, who regained power in August 2021 following the withdrawal of U.S. and NATO forces. The Taliban’s governance represents a significant departure from the previous democratic frameworks established after 2001, reverting to a more centralized and authoritarian system.

Executive Branch

Under Taliban rule, the executive authority is concentrated in the hands of the Supreme Leader and the Prime Minister. The Supreme Leader holds ultimate decision-making power, guiding national policies and religious directives. The Prime Minister oversees the day-to-day administration of the government, managing various ministries and implementing the Supreme Leader’s directives. This hierarchical structure emphasizes religious authority and centralized control, with limited participation from other political factions or civil society groups.

Legislative Branch

The traditional legislative bodies, such as the National Assembly, have been dissolved or rendered ineffective under Taliban rule. Decision-making is highly centralized, with policies and laws issued directly by the leadership without the input of a representative legislative body. This lack of a functioning parliament reduces checks and balances, concentrating power in the hands of the Supreme Leader and diminishing avenues for political participation and accountability.

Judicial System

Afghanistan’s judicial system under Taliban rule is based on Islamic law (Sharia), as interpreted by the Taliban. This system enforces strict religious codes and practices, impacting civil liberties and human rights. The judiciary operates with limited independence, often influenced by political considerations and religious doctrine. Punishments under this system can be severe, including corporal and capital punishments, which have raised significant concerns among human rights organizations and the international community.

Local Governance

The country is divided into 34 provinces, each governed by a provincial authority that reports to the central Taliban leadership. Local governance structures are closely monitored and controlled to ensure compliance with national directives and Islamic law. Traditional tribal and local leaders still play a role in governance, but their authority is subordinate to the central Taliban administration. This arrangement seeks to maintain order and ensure uniform implementation of policies across diverse and often remote regions.

International Relations

Afghanistan’s international relations are complex and strained under Taliban rule. The Taliban regime has limited recognition from the international community, resulting in restricted diplomatic and economic engagement. Humanitarian aid and assistance are often mediated through international organizations rather than direct governmental channels, complicating the delivery of aid and development programs. Efforts to engage with neighboring countries and global powers are ongoing, but geopolitical rivalries and concerns over human rights and terrorism hinder progress toward broader international acceptance.

Challenges

The Taliban government faces numerous challenges in governance and administration:

• Human Rights: The suppression of political dissent, restrictions on women’s rights, and the imposition of strict religious laws have drawn widespread condemnation. Women’s access to education, employment, and public life remains severely restricted, undermining efforts to promote gender equality and social development.
• Economic Sanctions: International sanctions and the withdrawal of foreign aid have exacerbated economic hardships, limiting the regime’s ability to finance governance and public services. These sanctions also deter potential investors and complicate efforts to stabilize the economy.
• Governance: The centralized and authoritarian nature of Taliban rule limits accountability and transparency, fostering an environment where corruption can thrive. The lack of inclusive governance structures stifles political participation and undermines efforts to build a stable and representative government.

Culture

Heritage and Traditions

Afghan culture is a rich and diverse tapestry, influenced by its myriad ethnic groups and historical interactions with various civilizations. The cultural heritage of Afghanistan reflects a blend of indigenous traditions and external influences from Persian, Islamic, Central Asian, and South Asian civilizations. Family, hospitality, and respect for elders are fundamental values deeply ingrained in Afghan society.

Art and Architecture

Afghanistan boasts a remarkable legacy of art and architecture, characterized by intricate designs and historical significance. Architectural marvels such as the Bamiyan Buddhas (destroyed in 2001), the Minaret of Jam, and numerous mosques and forts showcase the country’s artistic achievements and historical narratives. Traditional Afghan art includes intricate tile work, calligraphy, and frescoes, often depicting religious and cultural themes.

Music and dance hold an important place in Afghan culture, with traditional instruments like the rubab and tabla being central to musical performances. While dance is less prevalent due to conservative cultural norms, music remains a vital form of expression and cultural preservation. Afghan literature is equally rich, with classical poets like Rumi and modern writers contributing to the Persian and Pashto literary traditions, exploring themes of love, spirituality, and social issues.

Clothing

Traditional Afghan clothing varies significantly by region and ethnic group, reflecting the country’s cultural diversity. Men typically wear loose-fitting trousers (shalwar) and tunics, often accompanied by a vest or a traditional hat such as the pakol or turban. Women’s clothing is more elaborate, with long dresses (frocks) paired with headscarves (hijab) or face coverings (burqa) in more conservative areas. These garments not only serve practical purposes in Afghanistan’s diverse climates but also signify cultural identity and social status.

Cuisine

Afghan cuisine is renowned for its flavorful and diverse dishes, influenced by Persian, Central Asian, and South Asian culinary traditions. Staple dishes include Kabuli Pulao, a fragrant rice dish with lamb, raisins, and carrots; Mantu, steamed dumplings filled with meat and onions; Kofta, meatballs served in a rich tomato-based sauce; and Naan, traditional flatbread that accompanies most meals. Afghan food emphasizes the use of fresh herbs, spices, and a balance of sweet and savory flavors, reflecting the country’s agricultural abundance and cultural preferences.

Festivals and Celebrations

Afghanistan celebrates a variety of festivals and cultural events that highlight its rich heritage and religious traditions. Nowruz, the Persian New Year celebrated in spring, is marked by festivities that include feasting, dancing, and the exchange of gifts. Islamic holidays such as Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha are celebrated with prayers, communal meals, and charitable activities, reinforcing the importance of faith and community in Afghan life.

Independence Day, celebrated on August 19th, commemorates Afghanistan’s independence from British influence and is observed with national pride, parades, and public gatherings. Other regional and ethnic festivals also contribute to the country’s vibrant cultural landscape, showcasing traditional music, dance, and crafts.

Social Customs

Hospitality is a cornerstone of Afghan society, with guests treated with great respect and generosity. It is customary to offer food and drink to visitors, and refusing such hospitality can be considered impolite. Social interactions are often formal, especially between different genders and social classes, reflecting the importance of etiquette and respect in maintaining social harmony.

Marriage is a significant social institution, often arranged by families and involving elaborate ceremonies that blend traditional and modern elements. Extended family networks play a crucial role in social support, conflict resolution, and the transmission of cultural values and traditions from one generation to the next.

History

Ancient and Medieval Periods

Afghanistan’s history is a chronicle of invasions, empires, and cultural exchanges, reflecting its position as a crossroads of civilizations. The region was part of the Achaemenid Empire, an ancient Persian empire that facilitated trade and cultural integration across vast territories. In the 4th century BCE, Alexander the Great conquered the area, establishing the Hellenistic influence that left a lasting imprint on Afghan culture and architecture.

Subsequent periods saw the rise of the Maurya and Kushan Empires, which played significant roles in spreading Buddhism throughout the region. The Islamic conquest in the 7th century introduced Islam, fundamentally shaping the religious and cultural landscape of Afghanistan. Over the centuries, various dynasties and empires, including the Ghaznavids, Ghurids, and Timurids, ruled over Afghanistan, each contributing to its rich cultural and architectural heritage.

The Mongol Invasion

In the 13th century, the Mongol Empire, led by Genghis Khan, invaded Afghanistan, causing widespread devastation and loss of life. The Mongol occupation disrupted trade routes and agricultural production, leading to economic decline and population displacement. However, the Mongols also facilitated cultural exchanges along the Silk Road, introducing new ideas, technologies, and artistic influences that enriched Afghan society in the long term.

The Rise of the Durrani Empire

The 18th century marked the emergence of the Durrani Empire under Ahmad Shah Durrani, often regarded as the founder of the modern Afghan state. Ahmad Shah successfully unified various tribes and expanded the empire’s boundaries, establishing a centralized administration and promoting economic and cultural development. The Durrani Empire laid the foundations for Afghanistan’s national identity and political structures, setting the stage for future developments in the region.

19th Century: The Great Game

Afghanistan became a focal point in the geopolitical rivalry between the British Empire and the Russian Empire, known as the Great Game. This period was marked by a series of Anglo-Afghan Wars, as both powers sought to extend their influence and secure strategic advantages in Central Asia. The British sought to prevent Russian expansion towards India, while Russia aimed to establish dominance in the region. The Great Game ultimately solidified Afghanistan’s status as a buffer state, maintaining its sovereignty but at the cost of enduring external pressures and interventions.

Early 20th Century: Modernization Efforts

In the early 20th century, leaders like King Amanullah Khan embarked on ambitious modernization and reform efforts aimed at transforming Afghan society. Amanullah introduced educational reforms, promoted women’s rights, and sought to modernize the military and administrative systems. However, these efforts faced significant resistance from conservative factions, leading to political instability and the eventual abdication of Amanullah Khan. Despite setbacks, these modernization attempts laid the groundwork for future social and political changes.

Soviet Invasion and the Cold War

In 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan to support a communist government facing internal rebellion. This intervention sparked a decade-long conflict between Soviet forces and Afghan Mujahideen fighters, who were backed by the United States, Pakistan, and other nations. The prolonged war devastated Afghanistan’s infrastructure, economy, and social fabric, leading to widespread displacement and loss of life. The Soviet withdrawal in 1989 left Afghanistan in a state of chaos, setting the stage for further conflict and the eventual rise of the Taliban.

Civil War and Rise of the Taliban

Following the Soviet exit, Afghanistan descended into civil war as various factions vied for control of the country. The power vacuum and ongoing instability provided fertile ground for the emergence of the Taliban in the mid-1990s. The Taliban, predominantly composed of Pashtun militants, gained control of most of Afghanistan by 1996, establishing an Islamic Emirate characterized by strict interpretation and enforcement of Sharia law. Their rule was marked by severe restrictions on women’s rights, public executions, and the destruction of cultural heritage sites, such as the Bamiyan Buddhas.

2001 Onwards: U.S. Invasion and Aftermath

In response to the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, the United States launched a military invasion of Afghanistan aimed at dismantling Al-Qaeda and removing the Taliban from power. This initiated a prolonged conflict involving NATO forces and Afghan government troops, with efforts to establish a democratic government and rebuild the country’s institutions. Despite significant investment in infrastructure, education, and governance, Afghanistan remained unstable, plagued by insurgent attacks, corruption, and political fragmentation.

The eventual withdrawal of U.S. and NATO forces in 2021 led to the rapid collapse of the Afghan government and the Taliban’s swift return to power. This shift has resulted in renewed uncertainty, economic hardship, and a humanitarian crisis, as the Taliban seek to consolidate their authority and navigate the challenges of governance in a post-conflict environment.

Recent Developments

As of 2024, Afghanistan remains under Taliban rule, facing a multitude of challenges that impede its progress and stability. The economy is in dire straits, exacerbated by international sanctions, reduced foreign aid, and the collapse of key industries. Humanitarian needs are acute, with millions facing food insecurity, lack of access to healthcare, and limited educational opportunities, particularly for women and girls.

Efforts to rebuild and stabilize the country are ongoing but are hindered by persistent conflict, governance issues, and international isolation. The Taliban government faces the daunting task of addressing economic woes, ensuring security, and gaining broader international recognition, all while navigating internal divisions and maintaining control over diverse and often resistant populations.

Afghanistan Map